Communication Skill Essay

International Conference Conferences, Symposia and Campus Events 2006 The Integration of Professional Communication Skills into Engineering Education Dorthy Missingham University of Adelaide Originally published in the Proceedings of the EDU-COM 2006 International Conference. Engagement and Empowerment: New Opportunities for Growth in Higher Education, Edith Cowan University, Perth Western Australia, 22-24 November 2006. This Conference Proceeding is posted at Research Online. http://ro. ecu. edu. au/ceducom/91 Missingham, D. The Universtiy of Adelaide, Australia. The Integration of Professional Communication Skills into Engineering Education Dr Dorthy Missingham School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Adelaide. Australia dorothy. missingham@adelaide. edu. au ABSTRACT Conventional Engineering curriculum is strongly focused on the development in students of technical knowledge and skills. However, in recent years, employers have increasingly acknowledged that this traditional preparation of Engineering students‘ is inadequate, as graduates lack the wide range of written and spoken communication skills required to engage with members of other professional groups and with the broader community. Recognition of the important role that communicative competence plays in professional success within the engineering industry has, as a result, led to a number of tertiary institutions developing curricula to address these needs. This paper presents a successful integrative Engineering Communication curriculum, developed for both local and international Engineering students in an Australian university, which aims to develop both communicative ability and community engagement. The courses that form the Engineering Communication Program provide for critical awareness-raising of community issues such as ethics, sustainability and gender, English for academic and professional Engineering purposes for both English as an Additional Language (EAL) and English background students and advanced research communication for postgraduate students. All courses are strongly informed by scaffolded learning techniques, systemic functional linguistics and genre theory, and most are run collaboratively by Engineering, Education and Applied Linguistics lecturers. The aims of the Program are to raise awareness in Engineering students about, and to equip them with skills for, their future roles and responsibilities, and to provide the community with engineers whose strong technical knowledge is balanced by an appreciation of the broader social contexts with which they will engage in their professional lives. INTRODUCTION The need for engineering students to acquire professional skills, in addition to technical skills, in order to enhance both community engagement and career success has been increasingly articulated by educators and industry professionals alike. Professional skills mentioned variously include teamwork, conflict resolution, and an awareness of social justice, sustainability and ethics. However, as highlighted by Adams and Missingham (2006) the need for improved communicative competence in engineering graduates has been the professional skills area most widely discussed in research and the engineering profession. Increasingly, engineers work in knowledge-intensive fields that require both high level communication and problem-solving skills (Alvesson 2004). In the Australian setting this need is recognised in the National Generic Competence Standards formulated by Engineers Australia, which extensively refers to communicative abilities throughout its descriptors of competencies required by engineers (IE Aust 1999). However, research on employer satisfaction with engineering graduates‘ communication skills indicates they are below desired requirements, both in Australia (DEETYA 2000) and abroad (Lee 2003). This paper discusses a successful integrative Engineering Communication curriculum, developed for both local and international Engineering students in The University of Adelaide, which aims to develop both communicative ability, and an understanding of the need and ability for community engagement. The paper begins with a brief comparative examination of engineering communication education in other universities, both in Australia and overseas. 346 COMPARATIVE APPROACHES The critical role that communicative competence plays in both academic and professional success has, over the past decade, been recognised nationally and internationally in a number of tertiary institutions involved in engineering education (Najar 2001, Riemer 2002, Einstein 2002). A review of literature, relating to engineering communication education, reveals several significant trends common both within Australia and overseas. These trends identify three major areas of academic and professional engineering communication recognised by educators as important skills needed by graduating engineers. The teaching of oral communication, written communication and teamwork skills have been introduced as part of the undergraduate engineering curricula in various Universities world wide (Einstein 2002, Schowm & Hirsch 1999). Whilst the combination of communication skills taught and the methodologies used may vary between institutions one particular theme or approach frequently emerges. An interdisciplinary approach to the teaching and learning of engineering communication (Artemeva, Logie &St-Martin 1999, Jennings & Ferguson 1995) is being practiced by a small but increasing number of engineering faculties and colleges. Examination of interdisciplinary approaches is important in relation to the integrative approach used by engineering and communication educators within the School of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Adelaide. In this respect, learning and teaching of oral and written communication skills in engineering communication curricula have been examined whereas team work skills have not been specifically examined for this particular discussion, as it is considered as worthy of separate dedicated research . Studies undertaken within Australian universities attest the need for high level communication skills. According to Najar (2001) communicative competence, including teamwork and professional writing skills for example, the ability to ? research, write and format basic research reports‘ as well as developing formal oral presentation skills is important to prepare students for both ?academic success and the workplace‘. Similarly Riemer (2002) claims that whilst engineering knowledge and technical expertise are important attributes the graduate engineer must be able to present this knowledge ? ith an excellent standard of communication skills‘. However, where Najar emphasises written and teamwork communication skills, Riemer (2002) claims that emphasis on oral communication skills is highly valued by employers. Riemer further elabourates that oral communication and presentation skills are ? career enhancers‘ which may be considered as ? the biggest single factor in determining a student‘s career success or failure‘ (Beder 2000 cited in Riemer 2002). Despite the apparent emphasis that Riemer places on oral communication skills he also acknowledges that there are a number of areas of communication skills which are necessary for engineers, including written communication skills, technical terminology and professional jargon. The later two areas are probably best described in linguistic terms such as genre and discourse, which are indicative that for each specific discipline there is an accompanying language culture. Internationally, universities are also engaged in the teaching and learning of engineering communication skills. Einstein in his 2002 overview of changes in engineering education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) describes a new approach implemented in the School of Civil Engineering which was developed in response to the view that what was being taught in universities was increasingly divorced from practice. As a result twelve courses were either created or developed in most of which ? regular oral, written and illustrated presentations‘ were required. Similarly Carlton University in Canada also recognised that the engineering discipline had specific needs in the teaching and learning of communication skills (Artemeva et al 1999). These needs related directly to the transition of engineering students from an ? academic to a workplace environment‘. In the case of Carlton University engineering communication studies emphasise written communication skills. The Carlton University approach described by Artemeva et al (1999) is in contrast to Riemers (2002) theoretical proposition on the prominence required in developing oral communication skills for the workplace. One other key difference in Riemers (2002) paper to the approaches suggested by Artemeva et al (1999) as well as Najar (2001) and Einstein (2002), is that Artemeva et al, Najar and Einstein are all overviewing programs of engineering communication already in existence. A common theme emergent in the literature is that many institutions recommend an interdisciplinary approach to the teaching and learning of engineering communication. Various researchers and educators claim that linking acquisition of academic communication skills to authentic engineering tasks 347 both challenges students negative attitudes, towards what they term ? earning English‘, as well as promotes student motivation. Shwom and Hirsch (1999) claim that shared agenda between disciplines recognises the equal status of engineering and communication, or the ? equal place at centre stage of the course‘. This view is also reinforced by Jennnings and Ferguson in their 2002 study, of communication engineering skills in Queen‘s University, Belfast, which states that through linking the study of communication skills to the exploration of engineering issues that communication skills become a key element in the educational process. Furthermore, ? here is a greater likelihood that students will develop a better overall perspective on their (engineering) subject‘. Significantly, many courses which have implemented an interdisciplinary approach have combined the teaching of communication skills with engineering design subjects. In an approach similar to that of the School of Mechanical Engineering, at The University of Adelaide, engineering schools at Northwestern University, USA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard and Flinders University, South Australia advocate an interdisciplinary approach that combines engineering communication with engineering design. In reference to the program at Northwestern University, Shwom & Hirsch (1999), claim that design and communication are ? ideal partners‘ and that students ? combined knowledge of both fields will make them both better designers and better communicators‘. Additionally students are convinced of the importance of communication in engineering. Of the interdisciplinary approach taken at MIT, Einstein (2002) describes design as a synthesising process which requires various visual, written and problem solving skills inferring therefore that it is the natural setting for teaching and learning communication skills. He goes on to state that ? design (synthesis), coordination and communication‘ are regarded as the major features of the MIT , Civil and Environmental approach to engineering education. Najar (2001) discusses the Language in Use (LIU) modules linked directly to engineering design project work at Flinders University. A notable similarity with the approach of Adelaide University‘s School of Mechanical Engineering approach is that the development of students engineering knowledge is supported in an integrated way by the acquisition of professional and academic communication skills. Skills common to both universities include; how to communicate orally, how to research, and how to write and format research reports. Similarly the interdisciplinary approach employed in the Civil Engineering Department at Queens University, Belfast covers related communication issues in use of the library (how to research), English composition and technical report writing (written communication) and Public speaking (oral communication). Additionally Queens University covers poster presentation (visual communication) an area that the Adelaide University program covers in fourth year but which is not mentioned in the Flinders University program. It is apparent from the literature therefore, that the need for communicative competence in engineering education has been recognised in a number of places worldwide. In particular, an interdisciplinary education approach in engineering communication has been introduced in a range of Universities which offer engineering studies. Despite some differences in the methodologies, curricula and elements of communication addressed by different universities, including the University of Adelaide, these studies indicate that the synthesis of engineering design, which is inherently practical in nature, with the need to communicate the design process and outcomes is both an ideal setting and an important factor for positively influencing student motivation and skills in the study of professional communication. By promoting a shared agenda between disciplines the literature also suggests that this may also promote student recognition of the importance of communication in engineering. Regardless of the similarities and differences of engineering communication education taken by the programs discussed here the literature agrees that increased levels of communicative competence relate directly to employability and success in the engineering industry. THE ADELAIDE APPROACH Background The teaching of professional communication skills within the School of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Adelaide has evolved over a number of years since the mid 1990s. This evolution has experienced different iterations with the current approach developing more directly from a combination of initiatives taken both within the Faculty of Engineering and the School of Mechanical Engineering, and by the then Advisory Centre for University Education (ACUE), now the Centre for Learning and 348 Professional Development (CLPD). These initiatives led to the creation of various courses in Engineering Communication including courses for International Students. The Faculty wide Engineering Communication (EAL) course was traditionally managed by the School of Mechanical Engineering. In Semester 2, 2006 this course was transferred to management by the Faculty Academic Registrar in order to reflect the Faculty wide nature of the need for dedicated engineering communication course for international undergraduates. Within the School other initiatives led to the teaching of Engineering Communication to 3rd year students. Initially taught as a separate subject this course was combined with the Level III Design in 2004. In the same year the School of Mechanical Engineering also created a new course, Engineering Planning Design and Communication (EPD&C), for entry level students. The Mechanical Engineering Communication approach consists of a fully integrated, nested curriculum of courses, designed to; explicitly link communication learning to learning in engineering at all year levels, ? develop students‘ ability to construct and present logical argument discursively, ? oster language development from sentence level skills to large document written and oral communication, ? encourage active participation through class discussion and response to formative feedback, ? foster the ability to communicate problem identification, formulation and solution to diverse audiences and ? use development in communicative ability as a vehicle for fostering students‘ insight into and perspective on engineer ing practice in the community, including the social, cultural, political, international and environmental context of professional engineering practice. Each course in the program, illustrated below in Figure 1, addresses these aims while embedded within either broader Engineering course curricula or, in the case of Engineering Communication EAL, within a curriculum that employs specific strategies that address the needs of EAL Engineering students (Adams & Missingham 2006). 349 EPD&C Level I 2 Engineer Communication EAL 1 Design Practice Level I I 2 Engineering and the Environment Level III 2 Design & Commun. Level III 2 Research Communication Program 1 Design Project Level IV 2 (Postgraduate) Figure 1: Mechanical Engineering Communication courses showing their relationships to each other and the broader Engineering curriculum. 1 for students enrolled in all Engineering disciplines 2 for students enrolled in Mechanical Engineering Theory The theoretical underpinning of the first year Engineering Planning Design and Communication course and the third year Design and Communication course is based on the notion of ? ocial constuctivism‘ as advanced by Vygotsky. In particular, Bruners‘ concept of ? scaffolded‘ learning (Wood, Bruner & Rose 1975) informs the student based approach that is centred on active participatory curricula which aims at assisting students to develop increasingly skilled levels of academic and professional communication. Social constructivism grew from a view that educational methods needed to be base concepts of learning beyond rote memorisation, ? egurgitationâ⠂¬Ëœ of facts and the division of knowledge into different subjects. Early approaches sought to provide appropriate learning situations where teachers allowed students to develop their own knowledge, meaning and truth in a context which would enable them to use the learning throughout their life. Vygotsky developed this philosophy, noting that ? the central fact about our psychology is the fact of mediation‘ (Vygotsky 1978 p. 166). Social constructivists consider that the dynamic interaction between instructors, learners and tasks provides the opportunity for learners to create their own understanding through the interaction with others and is the most optimal learning environment. The constructivist approach, guiding the Mechanical Engineering communication courses is further reinforced in the application of Brunerian notions of the ? spiral curriculum‘. Bruner postulated that ? A curriculum as it develops should revisit the basic ideas repeatedly, building on them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them‘ (Bruner 1960) p. 3). 350 In the School of Mechanical Engineering these theories guide the designing of courses which are aimed at developing generic language skills which can be used as the basis for current and future application within the engineering industry, rather than a language course focussed solely on communicating engineering terms. The learning and t eaching of communication skills across all levels of the undergraduate program enables scaffolding of knowledge to be integrated rather than focussing on a short d of student teacher interaction. Through this approach skills acquired in first year communication are reinforced in second year Design Practice, extended and elaborated on in the level III course and then reinforced again through workshops and practice in the fourth year Design Project. Borrowing from neuroscience research into learning. the 2006 Level III and semester 2 EAL students have informed the idea of a concept of developing an habitual intellectual framework. Whilst relying on heavily on scaffolded learning, this concept also aims to redress some of the negative perceptions that engineering student have about ? earning English‘ by encouraging students to acquire higher cognition learning in communication skills which they can then apply as habit. PRACTICE AND PERCEPTION Three dedicated communication courses are provided at undergraduate level, Engineering Communication EAL (English as an Additional Language), Engineering Design Planning and Communication (Level I) and Design and Communication (Level III). The overall aim of the three courses is to provide students with an nderstanding of the importance of communication to the professional engineer and to equip them with the necessary knowledge, skills, flexibility and confidence to be good engineering communicators. Through the application of Student Experience of Teaching and Learning (SELT) surveys students are able to comment on and assess the effectiveness of the courses to their needs. At the same time instructors are able to monitor student needs and make appropriate changes to the curriculum and methodology if required. Engineering Communication EAL Engineering Communication EAL was designed specifically to meet the particular needs of international students and to be complementary to the technical engineering courses students undertake to complete their degrees. Through a variety of formal and informal learning strategies students are introduced to and practice basic research techniques. These techniques include ? locating, critically reading and interpreting academically acceptable sources ? presenting their analysis in the form of evidenced based propositions with sources integrated appropriately ? resenting the argument in both a written and an oral form suitable for an academic audience. The strategies used emphasise participation and practice as key elements to becoming effective communicators. Therefore, classes are very active, sometimes rowdy and frequently fun with group discussions and impromptu presentations of issues, group and individual exercises integrated with peer teaching/learning through guided presentation of answers to the class, and open class discussion inviting students to academically critique their own and others responses. Student Experience of Teaching and Learning (SELT) surveys consistently indicate that learning outcomes for students are enhanced by ? full participation on (sic) the aims of the course‘, ? giving feedback to students about their participation‘, adjusting the teaching ? of various topics accordingly (sic) to the class – enabling faster, more effective learning‘, ? very dynamic lessons‘ and being ? able to stimulate my learning‘. Formal assessment strategies involve a series of formative assessments which involve students applying feedback provided to a subsequent assignment. Student comments indicate that this approach is highly effective. Design and Communication courses The Engineering Design Planning and Communication (Level I) and Design and Communication (Level III) courses are provided for all students undertaking degree programs in the School of Mechanical Engineering. The integration of communication and engineering design was devised specifically to emphasise the importance of professional engineering communication and to ensure that communication is not seen by students as a stand alone subject that can be completed and then forgotten about. The effectiveness of this approach in highlighting the importance of communication has been recognised by students who report that the course(s) ? improves your speaking and writing skills‘, 351 ?helps with the written work in other subjects‘, they have ? learnt how to write for university assignments‘, and ? learning academic writing (is) useful to further years of study‘. A number of students have explicitly stated that the course taught them ? to communicate effectively and should be compulsory for all engineer‘?. These comments are also consistent with graduate attributes specified as important not only by the Faculty but also by the engineering industry, including ? the ? ability to communicate effectively‘, ? the ? ability to undertake problem identification, formulation and solution‘ ? the acquisition of skills to enable the ? pursuit of life long learning‘. Course material is also designed to be complementary to the Engineering Communication EAL course by providing reinforcement of and extension to the skills learnt. For example, the Level I course provides students with the additional educational framework and the opportunity to apply skills learnt in ESL to the needs of report writing and the oral presentation of progress reports on a Planning and Design project. Student feedback through SELT surveys consistently evidence the importance of these skills, for example, ? It was great knowing how to structure a report properly‘ and the ? introduction to engineering report writing is very comprehensive‘. A further integrative approach that has been taken in the Level I and Level III courses is reflected in the establishment of the relationships with prior learning and future learning. For example, Level III examines structure, cohesion, critical thinking and analysis, the use of evidence, presenting arguments both in written and oral form and report writing at a more advanced level than the Level I course. The Level III communication course is also an important prerequisite to level the IV Design Project, where all students must write an extensive design report and present a professional seminar on their project. Challenges and Outcomes Empirical and anecdotal evidence indicates that engineers are poor communicators and that one of the factors which influences student choice in undertaking engineering studies is the belief they will not need ? English?. Therefore, discussions and exercises are designed to encourage students to participate and practice skills, to be flexible in their approach to language and its uses, to contribute their ideas, to build on their strengths and to develop confidence. The value placed on practical evidencing of communication is reflected in a participation mark, worth 20% of the total assessment. As a result classes are noisy and dynamic. Students also find that effective communication can be both useful and enjoyable. For example, SELT comments show ? I like the idea of students presenting ideas on overheads (transparencies) in class activities‘, the course ? keeps people interested in tasks that could be very boring‘, ? A good environment for learning is provided‘ and ? interactivity of the class in tasks helps us to gain a better understanding of the subject‘. Similar strategies of regular class and group discussions as well as workshop exercises are used throughout the courses to ensure students regularly practice the skills of communication. Student response indicates that group learning and discussion ? stimulates learning without placing student under pressure‘ and that all students‘are able to learn something regardless of language ability‘. Individual students and groups are invited to present analyses and answers to the whole class and then to call for comments from their peers. The importance to student learning of this approach is exemplified in the following SELT comment ? Doing exercises and presentations in class forced me to do the work which I otherwise would not have touched if it had been set as homework. I appreciate that. Students are encouraged to form cross cultural groups during classes, so that a greater understanding of diversity and its value in engineering is promoted. At the same time students must undertake practical work in developing effective team work skills in order to be able to complete tasks and class based exercises. Students frequently comment that the group work is th e best aspect of the course as it provides opportunity to improve interpersonal communication skills and to gain a real sense of diversity through their interaction with students of different socio-cultural, and ethnic backgrounds. Student comments indicate that working in cross cultural groups encourages ? acceptance of all ideas‘. Students discuss and at times challenge the characteristics of English for academic and professional purposes as presented in these courses. In doing so, students become increasingly aware of how purpose and socio-cultural factors shape the kind of language used in different contexts rather than 352 viewing language as simply correct or incorrect, or based predominantly on the rules of grammar. Issues of ethics and social responsibility arise naturally in relation to topics and lecturers encourage students to discuss these in class. Similarly communication and management themes highlight the nontechnical role aspects of engineering. Students have reflected that ? This (allows you to) practice skills you actually need‘ and there is a ? good balance for a broad variety of skills‘ development. Links to industry expectations are also reinforced through guest presentations from graduate engineers, Engineers Australia and industry leaders. In these way students are encouraged to broaden their perception of the engineering industry as a technical culture to include the understanding that engineering is also a communicative culture. Formal Assessment of Student Work A series of formal assessments, both oral and written are also undertaken to ensure that students can also apply research and analytical skills in a ? planned and timely manner‘ as highlighted by engineering graduate attributes. Formative feedback is given on all assignments in order that students may take full advantage of self directed learning. Students who apply the feedback to subsequent assignments are rewarded for both the attempt and the quality of the improvements made. Students report that this approach provides ? constructive criticism‘ which ? helps each student‘ to ? check their drafts carefully‘. Assessment criteria and their relationship to graduate attributes are fully discussed in both the course notes and in conjunction with exercises, and students have expressed this helps them to place learning in the context of professional and industry expectations, ? hen it‘s explained, it makes sense that engineers spend so much time writing reports, talking to clients and presenting project ideas to meetings‘. RESEARCH TOPICS AND TOPICAL RESEARCH To broaden student awareness of their professional responsibilities as engineers within society, in addition to operating within a company framework, research topics are carefully chosen to reflect community and industry concerns. In particular th e topics chosen provide for critical awareness-raising of community issues such as ethics, sustainability and social justice. For example, the research topic for the current semesters Engineering Communication EAL course is the Role of Engineers, through which students are exploring issues such as personal and interpersonal skills, engineering education and life long learning, ethical responsibilities, social and environmental factors, holistic thinking, entrepreneurship as well as technical skills. Previous topics have included an examination of gender issues in engineering education and the profession, forensic engineering, and the effects of teamwork on the outcomes of engineering projects. The imbedded nature of the Engineering Communications courses within the engineering curriculum ensures that the research topics are relevant to engineering practice, topical and frequently devised in collaboration with engineering lecturers. Level III Design and Communication research topics, for example, are devised together with the design lecturer and sometimes also with reference to other departmental members. The current semesters‘ research topic was directly linked to the Design Project topics. These topics and the communication research topic specifically designed to be co-related. Through this collaborative approach aspect of sustainability in engineering practice are reinforced and student skills in critical thinking, analysis and evaluation of research information are further developed. In Design the projects are to design a Formula SAE Car, Bio-Oil Trike, Biodiesel Bike, 1. 0 litre Biodiesel Taxi – Tuk-Tuk, Hybrid Solar Electric Vehicle, Biodiesel Boat, Formula SAE Aircraft, Alternative Energy 2-Seater Aircraft, Hybrid Solar/Biofuel Generator, Fossil-Fuel-Free irrigation system or a Nano-satellite. The topic for the Communication assignments is ? ustainability‘, applied to the chosen design project. , as outlined below. Topic The broad objective of sustainable development is ? to achieve social justice, sustainable economies, and environmental sustainability? ( European Conference on Sustainable Cities & Towns, 1994). Australia has a National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development which aims to ? meet the needs of Australians today, while conserving our ecosystems for the benefit of future generations? (Office of Sustainability, Department of Environment and Heritage, 2006). 53 Task Environmental sustainability is a fundamental aspect of sustainability. For your Communication assignments you should identify how environmentally sustainable features can be incorporated in the design of your project, for example a bio-diesel boat, or alternative energy 2-seater aircraft. In addition, you should compare the effects of these features to a traditionally designed version of your project. You are not expected to justify sustainability. Your research must focus on the specific features of sustainable transport. Yong & Missingham, 2006) Previous research topics have included the following: Investigate an ethical dilemma in an engineering project, and critically evaluate the response of the engineering company or companies involved, in terms of relevant tenets of the IEAust Code of Ethics. (Yong & Missingham, 2005) Select an example of technological development that is prominent in industrialised society and analyse the benefits as well as the adverse effects of this technology to individuals, society and the environment. Yong & Missingham, 2004) A high level of both professional communication skills and an appreciation of community concerns required to be developed by the Level III Mechanical Engineering students. The topic descriptions have also been carefully devised to illustrate to students the inter-relationship of effective communication and an understanding of the social, cultural, political, international and environmental impacts implicit in the professional practice of engineering. These expectations are detailed in the Research Topic paper given below. ?Your research is to be based on a topic which has social, cultural, economic, and/or political implications. Engineers work in every sphere of life. As a professional engineer you will be working in an array of industries, in various contexts, and making contact with many people about professional organisations, government departments and agencies, allied industries and organisations, academics, and others. As an effective communicator and decision maker, you will need to be able to present your interpretation and findings on a range of issues, as will occur in the negotiation and management of projects, the submission of tenders, and the advising of clients. The topic for your research in this subject aims to provide you will strategies to both write and talk about your interpretation and findings about diverse issues. Your writing and your presentations will be an attempt to convince a nonspecialist audience of your point of view. You may choose one of the following areas of research for your project. Topic A – the impact of engineering projects on local communities The projects you may work on as an engineer could have significant social, cultural, economic, and/or political implications for people and communities who are not directly involved in the implementation of the project. Your research task is to: Discuss an engineering project which has, or has had, a significant impact/s on local communities Your research is to examine the impacts and outcomes of a specific engineering project on a community or communities. Examples of engineering projects could be dams or hydro-electric projects, weapons testing, mining, the building and operation of chemical or other industrial plants, building roads and railways, and others. The size of the project is unimportant, rather it is its impact on the local community which will be the focus of your research. The impacts could be one of the following scenarios, or a combination of scenarios: ? Well recognised and integrated into the planning of the engineering project, yet have provided, or are providing, difficulties in the implementation and outcomes of the project ? Recognised by the local communities or interest groups, but rejected or ignored by project planners and workers ? Unrealised in past projects, with the long-term consequences now the subject of community and/or legal dispute. 354 Your discussion needs to be an examination, that is, an analysis of the impacts arising from the project. Avoid lengthy descriptions of the history of the project, the engineering technicalities, or merely describing the impacts. You need to read as widely as possible about the project you have chosen, and from your interpretation of the source information provide a discussion of the (perhaps disputed) impact/s of the project. Limit your scope so that you have a specialised focus, that is, analyse only two or three impacts of the project. The word limit set for your assignments means you will not be able to cover all aspects of the project. Your focus needs to be an in-depth examination rather than a broad sweep of issues. Topic B – the impact of seemingly simple technology on the existence of communities. This topic also aims to examine the impact of (seemingly simple) technology on the existence and quality of life for those who use or used the technology. Your task is to: Discuss the impact of a seemingly simple technology on the existence of a community This research topic involves examining the design logic underpinning the technology and importantly the effectiveness of its use. Examples of apparently simple technology could be the boomerang, other hunting implements, for example, harpoons and poison arrows, a specific type of irrigation system, terracing for the cultivation of crops, and others. Your research needs to take account of: ? The design logic underpinning the technology ? The quality of life and survival provided for those who used the technology ? Any evidence which debates the effectiveness of technology, particularly its long term use. The technology you are examining may have been beneficial for a community in the short term, but in the longer term, further developments, modifications, abandonment of the technology, may have ensured a better quality of life, even survival, of a community. Long term environmental impacts could be important in your study. Your discussion needs to be an analysis of the effectiveness, or otherwise, of the technology. Avoid lengthy descriptions of the history or the form of the technology. This information needs to be only brief background information. You need to read as widely as possible about the technology you have chosen, and from your interpretation of the source information provide a discussion of the (perhaps disputed) effects of its use. Limit your scope so that you have a specialised focus, that is, on the analysis of two or three aspects of effectiveness of the technology. The technology could be from any era, past or even present day. If you are examining past technology, your focus needs to be on the effectiveness, or otherwise, of the technology itself for its intended purpose regardless of other influencing factors such as the introduction of other technology as a result of invasion, colonisation, or economic factors. Alternatively, the technology could be in current use or development, such as reversions to more environmentally sustainable technologies, for example, wind power. (Wake, 2002) CONCLUSION By promoting a shared agenda between language and engineering disciplines it is suggested that this may also promote student recognition of the importance of communication in engineering. Regardless of the similarities and differences of engineering communication education taken by various programs discussed here, increased levels of communicative competence relate directly to employability and success in the engineering industry. The program developed by School of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Adelaide represents a successful integrative Engineering Communication curriculum, developed for both local and international Engineering students in an Australian university, which aims to develop communicative ability, community engagement and an awareness of the social, cultural, political, international, environmental and ethical contexts in which professional engineers practice. 55 ACKNOWLEDEMENTS Thanks go to many colleagues and friends, and to staff and students of the School of Mechanical Engineering who provided input (often unwittingly) to this research proposal. Thank you to Karen Adams for the stimulating and frequent discussions on many things educational and philosophical and Colin Kestell engineering lecturer extraordinaire who can always be relied on to stimulate teaching enthusiasm and creativity. Many thanks go to wonderful colleagues Elizabeth Yong and Kristin Munday whose considerable work is also represented here, and to Catherine Irving and Patricia Zoltan whose support, intellectual contributions and hard work have also contributed to this program. Thank you also to Barbara Wake whose commitment to and knowledge of academic communication which, together with the vision of Colin Hansen, Head of the School of Mechanical Engineering have enabled the development of such a successful program of professional and academic engineering communication. Special thanks to Roxanne Missingham for the editing and encouragement. REFERENCE Adams, K & D Missingham (2006) Contributions to Student Learning: An overview of Engineering Communication courses in Mechanical Engineering education, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Adelaide, unpublished (internal) report. Alvesson, M (2004) Knowledge Work and Knowledge-intensive Firms, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Artemeva, Natasha, Logie, Susan & St-Martin, Jennie (1999) ? From Page to Stage: How Theories of Genre and Situated Learning Help Introduce Engineering Students to Discipline-Specific Communication? Technical Communication Quarterly, Summer, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 301-316. Bruner, J (1960) The Process of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (2000) Employer satisfaction with graduate skills: research report, by AC Nielsen, DEETYA, Canberra. Einstein, H Herbert 2002, ? Engineering Change at MITâ⠂¬Ëœ, Civil Engineering, October, vol. 72, i. 10, pp. 62-69. European Conference on Sustainable Cities & Towns, Aalborg, Denmark, 1994, Charter of European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability, p. http://ec. europa. eu/environment/urban/pdf/aalborg_charter. pdf> viewed 21 July, 2006 Institution of Engineers Australia (1999) National Generic Competence Standards, IEAust, Canberra. Jennings, Alan & Ferguson JD (1995) ? Focussing on Communication Skills in Engineering Education‘, Studies in Higher Education, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 305-314. Lee, Tong Fui (2003) ? Identifying essential learning skills in students‘ Engineering education‘, paper presented at the Annual HERDSA Conference, 6-9 July, Christchurch, New Zealand. Najar, Robyn L (2001) ? Facilitating the development of disciplinary knowledge and communication skills: Integrating Curriculum‘, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Freemantle, 2-6 December. Newell, James A, Marchese, Anthony J, Ramachandran, Ravi P, Sukumaran, Beena & Harvey, Roberta (1999) ? Multidisciplinary Design and Communication‘, International Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 1-7. Office of Sustainability, Department of Environment and Heritage, Government of South Australia, (2006) What is sustainability? viewed 21 July, 2006 356 Riemer, Marc J (2002) ? English and Communication Skills for the Global Engineer‘, Global Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 6, no. 1. Shwom, Barbara & Hirsch, Penny (1999) ? Re-envisioning the writing requirement: an interdisciplinary approach‘, Business Communication Quarterly, March, vol. 62, i. 1, pp. 104-108. Vygotsky, L S (1978) Mind in Society, MIT Press, Cam bridge, Mass. Wake, B (2002) Engineering Communication Course Notes, School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide. Wood, D, Bruner, J, & Rose, S (1975) ? The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving‘, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 17, pp. 89-100. Yong, E & Missingham, (2006) Design & Communication Course Notes, School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide. Yong, E & Missingham, (2005) Design & Communication Course Notes, School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide. Yong, E & Missingham, (2004) Design & Communication Course Notes, School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide. 357

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Induced Plenteous Stem Cells Applied to the Held of Regenerative Medicine Imagine having the opportunity to travel back in time with the power to alter the outcome of the future. As pleasing as this may sound, such occurrences just do not seem realistic or even possible in today's world. Although, if we take a step back and look into time travel on a smaller scale, at the cellular level, it is indeed possible to revert to an earlier stage of life.Specifically focusing on terminally differentiated anatomic cells, scientists are now able to induce plenipotentiary thanks to the findings from Sir John B. Gordon, and Shinny Yamaha. Findings from Cordon's paper inform us that all cells in an organism contain the same genetic Information. The difference in gene expression leads to one cell type over another. This Implies that somatic cells should have the ability to give rise to a variety of cell types under the appropriate conditions because all of the cells have the same DNA content.Findi ngs from Handyman's paper tell us that the factors responsible from the maintenance of allurements in early embryos and embryonic stem cells also are responsible for inducing plenipotentiary in somatic cells. The factors from Handyman's discovery are COT-3/4, KILL, SOX, and c-NYC; these four transcription factors work together to effectively induce plenipotentiary and have greatly advanced the technological applications of genetic reprogramming. The field of regenerative medicine has especially benefited from the genetic reprogramming advances.One of the main goals of regenerative medicine is to restore structures of damaged tissues as well as to restore functions of damaged organs . A major application for regenerative medicine Is In the field of cardiovascular medicine. The use of regenerative medicine for cardiovascular disease treatment Is appealing because It Is much less Invasive that transplantation and open-heart surgery. In order to determine which combination transcription factors are able to create normal cell fates from the damaged cardiac tissue, induced plenteous stem cells are an intricate part of the drug screening technique often used.The drugs capable of inducing plenipotentiary and repairing the damaged tissue have the potential to treat cardiovascular disease n human patients. Alternative options for repairing damaged tissue include transplantation of new organs from donors. Cardiovascular diseases continue to account for the leading cause of death in American. Due to the high frequency of deaths caused by heart malfunctions in society, researchers are constantly trying to discover new ways for treatment and prevention.Despite the alternative methods used to treat cardiovascular diseases, the use of Induced plenteous stem cells for regenerative medicine Is overall beneficial to the field of cardiovascular medicine cause It Is a less Invasive option that can effectively restore wounded cardiac tissue by replacing cardiologists and reducing o ccurrences of fibrosis (Upon, 2011). Cardiovascular repair than other options, such as transplanting an entire heart. Before regenerative medicine had the clinical potential it currently possesses, scientists first needed to have a comprehensive understanding of the heart and its development processes.Muscle tissue in the heart is referred to as cardiac muscle. One cell type that encompasses cardiac muscle is the cardiology. Each mature dull cardiology only contains a single, unique nucleus and expresses cardiac transcriptions factors, which allows for their calcium ion handling and contractile properties (Upon, 2011). Normally, these adult cardiologists cannot regenerate once damaged (Upon). This leads to the malfunction or loss of function within the heart, causing many of the heart conditions prevalent in society.Studies show that induced plenteous stem cells can differentiate into the three electroencephalographic phenotypes of cardiologists: nodal, trial, and ventricular (Upon, 2011). In a injunction human heart, nodal cardiologists are found at the bottom, trial cardiologists pump blood in, and ventricular cardiologists pump blood out to the lungs and the rest of the body. Each phenotype shows that suppositories can successfully increase the rate of contraction while ceremonially can decrease the rate of contraction (Upon).Ellen Peon's review paper explains that the function of cardiologists in the heart is to perform the contraction for blood flow. More importantly, it explains that the presence of specific chemicals, suppositories and ceremonially, effects the speed of contraction. Peon's findings about the specifics of heart contractions are extremely beneficial information in terms of regenerative medicine applied to cardiovascular diseases because a heart that is uncontrollably pumping too fast or too slow has the potential to be regulated simply by adding either suppositories or ceremonially concentrations to the environment.Both chemicals could be studied further to determine if a drug design involving the two is reasonable for treatment. Even though using induced plenteous stem cells to generate heart tissue is less invasive, there are drawbacks to be looked onto further by researchers. In the review paper, Upon notes that cardiology's derived from induced plenteous cells are immature functionally and structurally. This is problematic because at immature stages, the electrical properties of the cardiologists are similar to that of those of heart failure.It was also observed the the derived cardiologists were about ten times smaller than the normal adult cardiologists. Most importantly, the safety and practical worth of the induced cardiology's is unknown because there is not a lot of information about the amphibology of these cells. Downsides noted in Samurai's paper include the large-scale preparation that goes into creating these induced cardiologists and the elimination of undifferentiated induced plenteous stem cells fr om generating the cardiology's.With all that being said, there is promising potential for using regenerative medicine as a less invasive means to treat cardiovascular diseases. An alternate method used to bypass these downfalls is the cell-sheet technique. This technique involves harvesting a sheet of undamaged cells and transplanting them directly on top of the injured organ. The idea is that the undamaged cells will essentially promote recovery of the organ's wounded cells. Kumara and others illustrate the efficacy of induced plenteous stem cell derived cardiology sheets. Improve cardiac function (Kumara, 2011).Chemic cardiopulmonary is when there is a lack of oxygen supply to the heart muscle tissue, causing measurable deterioration of it function. Sheets of cardiologists capable of restoring tissue after being deteriorated is a feasible option for treating chemic cardiopulmonary. However, this is still invasive for the patient and tissue is still be removed from one action and t ransplanted to another. Inducing regenerative cardiologists is still a much less invasive option to restore cardiac tissue. As previously mentioned, there is not a lot of regenerative potential for heart tissue once it has been wounded.One of the reasons for this is due to the activation of cardiac fibroblasts (Song 2012). A cardiac fibroblast is a particular heart cell type that is responsible for maintaining the structural integrity of connective tissues. Activation of these fibroblasts leads to cardiac fibrosis (Song, 2012), which is simply the formation of excess connective issue in the hearth. It is the fibrosis that interferes with regeneration of cardiac cells causing a number of problems like the loss of contractile function and the increased susceptibility to arrhythmias (Song, 2012).But because most of the cells of the heart are in fact cardiac fibroblasts, they are a potential regenerative medicinal source of cardiac function restoration. One major success of regenerative medicine as it relates to cardiovascular medicine is the repair of heart tissue by reprogramming non- mystery with cardiac transcription factors performed by Kuhn Song along with there researchers. Song's paper shows that GATE, Hand, MFC, and TPTB are able to reprogram mouse cardiac fibroblasts into contracting cardiac-like mystery in vitro and in vivo.The discovery of these essential cardiac inducing factors can act as the platform for answering more fundamental research questions in the future. Data from Songs research illustrate that the expression of these four transcription factors enhances cardiac function while decreeing adverse ventricular remodeling following infarction. Findings from this study shows that the efficiency of reprogramming to induced cardiac-like mystery using GATE, Hand, MFC, and TPTB is comparable to the reprogramming of induced plenteous stem cells by the Yamaha factors (Song).The method of retrovirus transduction was used to incorporate the transcription factors into the genome of the non-moseyed in order to bring the cells back to a plenteous state. Although viral and retrovirus transduction is a convenient method to incorporate new DNA sequences, there are drawbacks that may be adversely effecting outcomes of the induced plenteous cells. There are a couple of key disadvantages using viruses and vectors to incorporate DNA into a host's genome. One disadvantage is the genomic integration that occurs with retrovirus vectors.Genomic integration involves inserting DNA sequences directly into the host's cells DNA. The problem is that vectors integrate near the starting point of transcription causing either enhance transcription more than normal or this can disrupt transcriptions. The results from both outcomes are altered expression due to the technique used rather than the genetic information present. The likelihood of residual transgender expression is another disadvantage to using vectors as a means of incorporating new DNA sequence s.Residual transgender expression is when genetic material from one organism remains after it is transferred leading to the protein synthesis with the contents of the lingering DNA. Residual transgender expressions, research has been done to find alternative methods that are as practical in a clinical setting. A successful alternative to retrovirus transduction involves virus-free integration methods. In relation to cardiovascular medicinal applications, cardiologists have been successfully derived from virus- free induced plenteous cells.Shish Meta and others demonstrate that virus-free induced plenteous stem cells are able to differentiate into cardiologists with the characteristic cardiac-specific properties. The induced cardiologists showed think and thin filaments of muscle proteins, as expected to be seen normal adult cardiologists (Meta, 2011). Additionally, the induced cardiologists expressed calcium ion handling and ion channel proteins, which further confirms the heart tis sue development. Overall, the virus-free methods are preferred over retrovirus vector methods in clinical settings because the outcomes have less harmful potential in vivo.Despite some of the critical downfalls discussed, it is clear that the use of induced plenteous stem cells for regenerative medicine is ultimately useful to the field of cardiovascular medicine because it is a less invasive option that effectively restores wounded cardiac tissue by inducing cardiologists and reducing occurrences of fibrosis (Upon, 2012). Peon's paper shows that in the presence of suppositories and ceremonially, cardiologists contraction rates are affected. Drug designers working to create heart-regulatory drugs to control abnormalities in retreats now have more information to work with.Additionally, researchers are able to use this information as a platform for additional research to understand how to control irregularities in cardiology contractions. The use of regenerative medicine for cardiovas cular disease treatments is an emerging technological strategy that holds great potential for the future of human health.

My significant change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My significant change - Essay Example But for the already born Croesus’s, when things turn upside down it is no less than like a catastrophe for them. This is the narrative of the experience of my friend’s father’s paralysis attack and how it transformed his life both negatively and positively and contributed toward his perspective and philosophy of life. It is the story of his family’s sudden change in fortune which transformed his life of luxury to that one of constant struggle and hardship. Sixteen years ago, it was one fine Friday of summer, encapsulated with seasonal monsoon rains. His father left for work with a promise that he would take them to their private farmhouse to spend the weekend. His mother, a young eastern wife, got busy in the preparation for the evening and he and his other two sisters and brother were counting the minutes in extreme excitement. Life could not have been better, when in sudden shift of fate everything toppled. By noon, their car driver arrived home and requ ested his mother to accompany him to the hospital. The young lady was shaken on this occurrence but prepared herself for something very distressing to come forth. On reaching the hospital, she was informed that her husband had a severe brain hemorrhage and 80% of his body had been affected by the attack.

Toxic Hazard and Risk of Lead for Consumers Essay

Toxic Hazard and Risk of Lead for Consumers - Essay Example Lead is a highly toxic substance which when ingested may lead to irreparable neurological damage in children (ATSDR, 1999), kidney diseases, cardiovascular problems and reproductive complications. In 2007 Lead was ranked as the second most toxic substance after Arsenic (ATSDR, 2007). The toxicology of Lead is a result of its chemical similarity with Calcium thus the human body confuses Lead for Calcium and incorporates it into the bone marrow, kidney and the brain. Inasmuch as Lead affects adults, its effects on children can be fatal. A minimum of 10g/ml blood Lead impairs mental and physical development in children. A maximum of 80g/ml blood Lead leads to convulsions, comma and death. Lead poisoning can be detected through a number of symptoms. In children, the symptoms include abdominal pain, anaemia, vomiting, weight loss, short concentration span, hyperactivity, petulance and a slow speech development. In adults, the symptoms may include abdominal pain, memory loss, pale skin, weight loss, vomiting, petulance and anaemia. Lead poisoning can come from a number of exposure routes. All students, faculty staff and all visitors in IUB are exposed to these routes. First, the exposure route involving Lead Based Paint (LBP) is a major source. The paints used IUB buildings may chip off due to wear and tear, moisture friction or deliberate removal during renovation. The chips contain lead and mix with the dust which can be inhaled. The chips in the soil may leech and end up in water bodies. This route is not an acute exposure route. It is only acute to children who are fond of mouthing non food objects and substances. The preventive action to avert this exposure is to use Non- Lead paints which are of the same quality and glaze just like LBP. Industrial/ occupational Lead exposure is another possible route in that workers in a factory or laboratory that handles Lead are exposed to lead. Examples of such workers in IUB are those in pottery (Use Lead glaze), automotive repair (inhale exhaust fumes with Lead), industrial machinery and equipment, (inhale exhaust fumes with Lead) and chemistry students/laboratory technicians (analyze LBP or even handle elemental lead). Students of ceramics who use Lead glaze may inhale the Lead fumes involved in the Lead glaze. Those individuals threatened by this kind of exposure need to be careful and keen to wear protective gear such as masks to prevent the inhalation of the Lead fumes. This exposure is an acute threat because of the form and amount of Lead inhaled. The amount inhaled can be specifically high because the Lead is in gaseous form. Dishware is another exposure route. The plates and cups made of melamine or glass with a lead glaze, used by the students and faculty at the cafeteria or any other eating place, are a real threat. This is so because acidic food (such as tomato sauce, coffee, juice etc) kept in these containers may exacerbate lead leeching which can lead to lead poisoning. Though this is not an acute threat based on the amount of lead that can possibly leech, it is important that any dishware with a lead glaze is avoided. Most

HURRICANES IN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS Research Paper

HURRICANES IN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS - Research Paper Example Hurricanes are one of the most devastating natural phenomena known to man. They are chactacterised by strong winds, storm surges, and heavy rainfalls, all of which when combined, leads to extensive loss of human life, destruction of property and ecosystems and the alteration of landscapes. Definition of hurricanes and an exploration of their formation process A hurricane is a spiralling and powerful form of a tropical cyclone, which originates from warm sea surface and then moves towards the mainland. In order for hurricanes to be formed, the sea water must have surface warmth of more than 27 degrees. This temperature level results in the release of moisture and heat into the atmosphere. As the sea moisture rises it condenses to form storm clouds. During condensation, heat (latent heat of condensation) is released into the atmosphere. It is this heat which propels the hurricane. The latent heat makes the atmospheric air warm thereby causing the air to rise further. The void left by the risen air becomes occupied by additional moist air from the surface of the ocean in a continuous, cyclical pattern. This results in the formation of a wind pattern which is circular in nature. This is what is known as a hurricane. Provided that a hurricane remains above a sea surface of 27 degrees and higher, it keeps on pulling moisture from the sea, there by becoming larger in size and in momentum. Propelled by the latent heat and wind patterns in the sea, the hurricane may then head towards land where it finally loses its momentum.

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide Essay

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide - Essay Example The first section of the paper identifies the nature and symptoms of suicide. Nurses should be aware of the nature, signs and symptoms of suicide and the factors contributing to suicide risk. Determining who are at risk should be done immediately to prevent suicide, thus the second part of this paper determines the preventive measures that must be done to control the situation. The third part discusses the proper care for patients at risk of suicide. Although care for patients with suicide tendency is the main responsibility of psychologists and psychiatrists, nurses contribute to the wellness of the patients and the continuity of the recovery program. The fifth part suggests follow up actions that nurses can perform to ensure complete recovery of patients with suicide tendency. The sixth part gives the conclusion and summarises all the important points in the prevention, care and management of suicide cases in the hospital setting. The role of the nurse in the prevention, care, and management of suicide among hospital patients is very significant. The nurses are the ones who have the most direct and frequent contact with the patients, thus they may affect the mood and emotional condition of patients with suicide tendency. The case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide.... e case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide. The number of suicide cases in the UK has decreased in the past years (Joint Commission Resources 2007). Nevertheless, this does not make suicide less of a problem. The World Health Organisation declared suicide as a major global health concern, accounting for approximately one million cases worldwide annually (Voice of America 2009). Currently, it is one of the three leading causes of death for young people under 25. This rate makes suicide a serious problem in the field of health care. To address this issue, patients with suicide tendency should be identified right away for counselling and other relevant interventions. In the hospital level, nurses can help to address the problem by assessing and reporting the behaviour of patients. Therefore, it is necessary for nurses to know the signs of suicide to ef fectively act and elicit efforts from the concerned people to initiate prevention of suicide attempts and manage proper care of the patient. Currently, only a few nursing studies have addressed suicide specifically (Fitzpatrick and Wallace 2005; Bryan and Rudd 2011). Study and assessment of suicide cases revealed poor patient assessment, limited communication, and knowledge deficit of professional staff about suicide. In this regard, it is imperative for every nurse or health worker in general to be aware of the behavioural signs that can manifest as part of suicide risk. Also, it is important to understand the nature of suicide ideation and the factors that could lead a person to commit suicide. Suicide Prevention Suicide ideation or tendency results usually from depression. When people

Charles Tangs Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Charles Tangs Leadership - Essay Example These theories seek to describe what makes a good leader and are formulated to determine characteristics that organizations should look out for while scouting for a leader. This study considers that it is only by incorporating several of these theories that an effective model can be built one capable of predicting an effective leader. In this study, an effective leader is considered as one capable of motivating and enabling others to attain organizationally relevant goals (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). Organizationally relevant goals refer to productivity, social integration, optimal levels of continuous learning as well as goals and ethical means to achieve. An effective leadership must have natural cues separate from the regular people. In this case, this model considers the dictates of the trait theory as well placed. The trait theory holds that individuals inherit certain qualities that spell their ability to be leaders (Judge, Bono, Ilies & Gerhardt, 2002.p.770). In this case, openness to experience is considered a relevant trait. Openness to experience includes active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, awareness of one’s feelings, accepting variety and willingness to learn. The other pertinent trait in defining an effective leader is interpersonal relations. ... The path-goal theory is a development of Robert House and holds that a leader’s conduct is contingent to the contentment, enthusiasm and performance of his/her subordinates (Wofford & Liska, 1993.p.865). In this regard, a leader must have the ability to determine subordinate’s abilities and needs and thence implore on ways and means of complementing the abilities and compensating for deficiencies (Mumford et al 2007). In this regard, the model identifies that an effective leader must be open to experience, develop interpersonal skills, be task oriented and engage in improving employees as defined by the task-goal theory. Putting your philosophy to a test, evaluate Charles Tang’s leadership. Charles Tang passes as an effective leader. This is arrived at by weighing his practice against the discussed model of effective leaderships. Firstly, Tang appears as a leader who is open to experience. Tang’s leadership approach has been informed by past experiences as a student in China and later a student and employee of Intel in the West (Barling et al 1996). Unlike most Chinese managers, Tang was more open, and encouraged employees to oppose his position as he believed it is through consensus that potent solutions can be attained (House et al 2004). Secondly, being â€Å"externally Chinese† made him aware of the likely pitfalls in being authoritative as he had grown up under this system or approach to leadership (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Besides openness to experience Tang demonstrates a strong orientation to tasks. At the moment, Tang is aware of the challenge ahead which is ensuring optimal performance of his employees. To ensure this, he tasks himself with

Management Simulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Management Simulation - Essay Example A joint SWOT and PESTEL analysis identify various internal and external environmental factors to the enterprise. Competition, a threat under the SWOT model and a political factor under the PESTEL model, from firms such as Valentino, The Junction Shop and Pub Prince of Wales is a major factor that has led to poor market command, and is likely to dictate lower prices for the firm’s commodities. The competition into poor sales also limits the entity’s output volume. Weak management, a weakness under SWOT model, is another factor to the organization as poor insights into the competitive environment illustrates. This has led to poor forecast of the business’ financial capacity and competitiveness, and may force the business into urgent borrowing or force a shut down. Lack of proper marketing initiatives for countering the existing competition is another significant weakness. This has maintained low level of market command and therefore limited the organization’ s production level. The other SWOT and PESTEL elements are not identifiable (Webster 2010, p. 88). Health-in-Pizza Ltd.’s competitive situation and potential action plan for improvements The competitive business environment puts Health-in-Pizza Ltd. at a disadvantage against its competitors. Major targets such as college students and the business class have not been visiting the enterprise and price is a major factor because Health-in-Pizza Ltd. is 20 percent more expensive than its competitors are. Two strategies are available for improving the business’ position in the market, price reduction and a direct approach to promoting the entity’s products among the target population. Health-in-Pizza Ltd. should reduce its prices to values that are equivalent to, or bellow, prices offered by the competitors. This is because the trend in the past five months has shown that the market, regardless of its segments’ social classes is determined by pizza’s price. Awareness campaigns to enlighten the market of the health benefits of Health-in-Pizza Ltd.’s pizza and its reviewed prices should then follow this to change the developed attitude that the business is expensive. Section B Expected effects of environmental changes on the business Entry of a new supplier with cheaper products will reduce the entity’s operational costs and therefore increase its profit margin. This will further allow

The American Pageant by Kennedy Cohen-Bailey Essay

The American Pageant by Kennedy Cohen-Bailey - Essay Example Most of it was brought about by the need to expand the trade borders of the American people. America was linked in many ways to Cuba than just at the time of the war. Cuba was one of the major producers of sugar and major suppliers to the USA. The Wilson-Gorman tariff imposed on Cuba by America to protect the sugar growers in America invariably raised the price of sugar and the Cuban economy suffered as a result. The misrule by the Spanish of its colony in Cuba created a lot of unrest. The Cubans fought the 10year battle of independence from 1868 to 1878 and tried to drive the Spanish away by destruction of property including cane fields and blowing up of passenger trains. The situation peaked when Spain sent tyrant General Wyeley in 1895 to Cuba. Wesley took it upon himself to crush the rebellion and opened up re-concentration camps, imprisoned and isolated the Cuban revolutionaries from the Filipino revolutionaries in their war of independence. Many perished and â€Å"died like do gs† (Bailey, 629). from unsanitary conditions in the camps. The American people rose against this atrocities to the Cubans and wanted war but the then president Grover Cleveland was against it and even motioned to strike against congress if they were to declare war against Spain and send troops to Cuba. This resolve, however, did not last very long as there were many other factors at stake than America was unwilling to admit to at that time. US also had a stake in the war because it was not really comfortable with having a European colony that close to its own borders. The unrest in Cuba was straining US trade relations in the region and threatening US investments in Cuba. There was also fear that its access to Panama would affect future sea trade routes.  

Racism in basketball between china and USA Research Paper

Racism in basketball between china and USA - Research Paper Example In 2011, the United States Vice President Joe Biden made a  trip to Beijing China, and on the second day of his visit, there was a friendly basketball match. That was between the United States Georgetown Hoyas team and China’s Army-affiliated Bayi Rockets team. However, the basketball match did not turn out to be so much friendly eventually because each of the teams began engaging in hostile pushing and yelling. It persisted until one Chinese basketball player hurt in the abdomen shouted racist and offensive remarks at the Georgetown Hoyas coach, which made an eruption of both sides rising from their benches and crowding the basketball court.  The scuffle rapidly evolved into a very rough brawl between the United States and Chinese players. The chaotic fracas lasted for a few minutes while the referees watched on, and the basketball players stomped on each other and threw chairs towards one another. In addition to this, the audience tossed full water bottles and other wast e at the basketball court to add salt to the injury. Eventually, the Georgetown Hoyas’ coach called off his team from the basketball court, and the match was ruled a tie between the two teams (Stone, 2011). Reactions to the skirmish among the Chinese people were torn between humiliation and conceit because of racism. To a majority of the Chinese people, the incident tarnished the ambiance of hospitality that China had been trying to exhibit while the United States Vice President was in the country. It was indeed embarrassing to the Chinese people and a major loss of face for them. Several people who watched the scuffle between China and the United States called the Chinese players hooligans with poor basketball techniques, and even poorer character. However, some people applauded the Chinese players’ belligerence as bravery toppled with statements of racism. It involved the people saying that

How To Fix A Social Security Number Essay Example for Free

How To Fix A Social Security Number Essay The fastest growing crimes in America are Identity theft. Identity thieves are dishonest people that’s steals ones information or identity through ones Social Security number. Most of the time identity thieves use your number and your credit to apply for more credit in your name. Then, they use the credit cards and do not pay the bills. It’s a cankerworm that is eating deep into the American economy. This essay however looks at ways by which a social security number can be fixed. Social security number as a form of identity is a confidential and private number given to every citizen of United States. However, thieves get social security numbers through stealing wallets, purses, personal information provided to an unsecured site on the Internet, among others. When a social security number is stolen, there are some specific steps to take in order to get it fixed. In the first instance, a call would be made to the creditors who approved the credit (follow up with a letter). Also, a report would be filed with the police. After that, a contact would be made with the fraud department of the major credit bureaus in the country in order to make some rectifications. Finally, if all have been done to fix the problems resulting from misuse of the social security number but nevertheless someone is still using the number, then a new number may be assigned by the Federal Trade Commission subject to some stringent conditions and restrictions. REFERENCES 1. Advisory Council on Social Security. 1997. Report of the 1994- 1996 Advisory Council on Social Security (Washington: Government Printing Office). 2. Boice Dunham Group, Inc. 1993. The Nature and Scale of Economically-Targeted Investments by the 104 Largest U. S. Public Pension Plans, Prepared for Goldman Sachs. 3. Diamond, Peter A. 1997. Macroeconomic Aspects of Social Security Reform, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2.

The House of the Spirits

The House of the Spirits How is humour used to unravel the natures of the main characters and why is it used for the main theme of social injustice in Isabel Allendes The House of the Spirits and Ferdinand Oyonos Houseboy? Humour is defined as writings and other material created to make people laugh[1]. It has been used to grasp the attention of the readers, with its main purpose being to entertain. In both The House of the Spirits and Houseboy, humour has been used from the very beginnings of the novel to really acquire the concentration of the readers and keep them captivated.   Besides than adding vibrancy to the characters, humour might also serve to highlight key underlying themes in the literary work. The focus of this essay will be on how the writers have utilised humour to reveal the nature of the main characters, either by describing their characters actions in an amusing way or how their risibility provides indirect insights into how they perceive the world around them. It shall also address why writers incorporate this literary technique with main theme of social injustice in their works. In both the texts above, the writers have used humour from the very beginning whilst introducing their main characters; this usage engrosses the reader to develop interest in the character. The House of the Spirits begins with a dramatic opening in a church deliverance. Perhaps, why Allende chose to start the novel setting in a church could be to emphasize the importance of religion to the people of that particular region , but the bathos comes by an abrupt statement   by Clara: the voice of little Clara was heard in all its purity psst! Father Restrapo! If that story about hell is a lie, were all fucked, arent we The reader surely didnt expect to hear such a statement from a 10 year old girl. This shows us that Clara is very bold and forthright about her views as she is able to question what she is being taught in the church about hell. Many people simply believe everything they are taught through religion but certainly not Clara.  Ã‚   The language itself is very amusing besides the context. psst! the use of this onomatopoeia shows the disrespect for the Father as it undermines his status by   mocking him during a sermon. The highly inappropriate use of the word fucked in front of the public shocks everyone. This radical, carefree nature of hers is what brings about the humour in this piece thus it serves to be a very pertinent introduction to Clara and sets the platform for the reader to expect more unusual doings throughout the novel. Like Allende, Oyono introduces Toundi with humour. Toundi narrates of how he is proud to read and write and wants to copy the whites man custom of keeping a diary. This tells us that young Toundi is naive and filled with desire of learning a lot about the white men .The joy he gets by being literate tells us that this character is filled with promise in the future and determination. He is also revealed to be mischievous child as he had been making fun of father Gilbert but he is nonetheless the main character which undergoes metamorphosis over the course of the story. Thus humour has been successfully used to reveal the character traits, make them more colourful, interesting, lively and keep the reader engaged actively. Claras character in The House of the Spirits has been revealed further in the novel as the story progresses in various occasions, the humour usually comes out when she does something unusual and also to note is the fact that her strangeness was an attribute of her character: she is a telekinetic; is rarely attentive; she can predict futures, read dreams, and, lives a very introvert life but still she amalgamates the family together, and is extremely caring for others. The humorous bits of kinesthetic abilities, being rarely attentive (which itself is ironic as discussed later) are the key to understanding Claras character. When Esteban is shouting at Clara.Clara let him scream his head off and bang on the furniture until he was exhausted. Then inattentive as ever, she asked him if he knew how to wiggle his ears. Clara is being scolded by her husband and all she is concerned is whether he can wiggle his ears. This shows us Claras absent mindedness and care-free nature. It also serves to show us how Clara prohibits anyone from forcing her by offering resistance by being inattentive. She will never directly express her disgust but rather suppress it in a subtle manner. This shows us that her character is refined in the sense she does not have a strong body language or rebellious nature but still is very firm by not allowing herself to be oppressed even by her husband.. Again humour has been used to reveal her character trait. On the other hand, Toundi further reveals his character further when he first came to meet Father Gilbert. The Father would use to come to the village and toss little lumps of sugar like throwing corn to chicken. The use of little lumps of sugar, though is humorous, it also indicates how easily native Cameroonian people were converted to Christians in the hope of a better life, but later most of them would remain in poverty or be killed. Here humour has been juxtaposed with social injustice but to imply it in a more subtle way so as not to make the reader very sad with emotions. Toundi continues to describe how he too would fight for these lumps of sugar- and this tells us that Toundi is a boisterous kid who did not shy away from what he didnt like- but unlike Clara in The House of the Spirits ,he is willing to fight for it. It also reinforces the point made earlier about what allure white men especially Father Gilbert held for Toundi.

The Demand Of Petroleum Products In Ghana Economics Essay

The Demand Of Petroleum Products In Ghana Economics Essay Over decades, there has been no commodity price that has received so much attention predictions and speculations than crude oil price. However, intellectuals always fail in their predictions to produce the expected results. Crude oil in its original state has no value to the consumer until it is transformed into useable products such as Liquefied petroleum Gas (LPG), Kerosene, Gasoline, Diesel and other petrochemicals.  [1]  In most countries, motor fuels (Gasoline and Diesel) are always dominant than other petrochemicals. But Liquefied Petroleum Gas and other natural gas are becoming more visible in todays global oil and gas industry.  [2]  Like any other commodity in the market, the prices of these products as well as their demand, keep responding to changes in crude oil price and other market conditions. This movement in fuel prices causes worry among pundits, politicians and everyone who uses these products. Petroleum products get to the final consumer or to the market th rough different channels. The sales of these products also vary from one market or geographical location to another. Refiners either sell to wholesalers or sell to company-owned or company franchised retail sites.  [3]  For example, in the United States of America, the open market dominates and has a greater share of the market. However, in countries such as Malaysia, Mexico and most developing countries National Oil Company (NOC) own retail outlets and hypermarkets control majority share of the petroleum product market. In most West African countries one can even see by the roadside, these products filled in bottles and jars for sale.  [4]   This shows how important these products are in the day to day activities of consumers. Ghana imports crude needs from other countries to meet almost all of its crude needs and as such face the consequences of price volatilities. Ghana like most other developing countries is faced with the problem of a pricing scheme of petroleum products that will be acceptable to the population but which will not also cripple the economy. This is because the government of the day always subsidise the prices of these products as a way of reducing the impact on the ordinary Ghanaian consumer  [5]  . Since 2000, there has been a consistent rise in the consumption level of petroleum products even though the prices of these products keep increasing  [6]  . Many have tried to analyse the effect of changes in the price of these products on the final demand and on the welfare of the consumer in other countries. But, there seems to be little literature on that of Ghana. This study therefore seeks to analyse the effect of changes in crude oil price on the demand of petroleum products in Ghana. The underlying assumption is that, any change in crude oil price manifest itself in the prices of the derived products such as petrol, diesel, LPG, kerosene and other petrochemicals. The study employed an econometric method as a way of examining and analysing the effect of changes in price of the various products on the total demand of petroleum products (petrol, diesel, LPG and Kerosene) in Ghana from 2000 up to 2011. This study is organised into four chapters. Chapter one covered the Introduction. The background as well as the demand for petroleum and the theoretical framework are captured in chapter two. Chapter three contained the analysis and discussions of the findings. Chapter four is the concluding chapter. It also captures some recommendations. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 BACKGROUND 2.1 Global Demand for Petroleum Products The oil and Gas industry is one of the largest and complex global industries which touch almost every part of the human life with products such as gasoline, kerosene, gasoil, lubricants and thousands of petrochemicals products. The demand for crude oil is derived demand  [7]  . As indicated earlier on, crude oil in its original state has no value to the consumer until it is transformed into useable products such as Liquefied petroleum Gas (LPG), kerosene, Gasoline, Diesel and other petrochemicals  [8]  . The demand for these products over the past decade has been increasing in both industrial and developing economies  [9]  . There is no product price that has received so much predictions and speculations than crude oil price. But these predictions in most cases failed to produce the expected results. Like any other commodity in the market, the prices of these products as well as their demand, keep responding to changes in crude oil price and other market conditions  [10 ]  . According to Suleiman 2009, consumption of petroleum products in Indonesia has grown significantly and as a result, by 2004, Indonesia had become a net-importer of both crude oil and refined products  [11]  . 2.2 Demand for Petroleum Products in Ghana The Ghanaian economy depends solely on import for its petroleum needs. The Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) is the only refinery in the country charged with the responsibility of refining crude oil to produce petroleum products for domestic demand  [12]  . But, its inability to carry out this mandate effectively and efficiently has given rise to importation of some petroleum products from neighbouring country  [13]  . Approximately, 70% of the demand is met with products are produced by TOR and the remaining 30% from imports. The country imported its entire crude oil requirement as at December 2010, which is refined at TOR. However, this is looking to change as the country now produces oil in commercial quantities. The petroleum products marketed in Ghana are Premium Gasoline, Kerosene, Residual Fuel oil, Gas oil, LPG and Premix  [14]  . Bulk supply of these products is reliable and is done through an extensive infrastructural network comprising of storage depots located at strategic parts of the country, pipelines for the movement of petroleum products, Bulk Road Vehicles (BRVs) and also barges located on the Volta Lake  [15]  . The actual supplies however improved compared to the previous year and for that matter shortage of LPG and diesel were not as serious as in 2010. There are a number of factors influencing the consumption of petroleum products in the country. Among these factors are prices of the various products, real income of the consumer, changes in the number of consumers as well as the availability of these products. For instance, significant increases in retail prices of LPG for vehicular fuel have helped in reducing its consumption and on the other hand increased consump tion of gasoline and invariably the sales of the latter  [16]  . Inability to raise the required and adequate funds for the required LPG import due to cross-subsidisation enjoyed by the product might have also contributed to moderate LPG consumption compared to the Energy Commissions forecast during the year  [17]  . It was projected that the requirements for the major petroleum products-gasoline, kerosene, gas oil and LPG will increase significantly from 1.62 million tons in 2005 to 2.49 million tons by 2015 representing an annual growth rate of 5.3% over the period  [18]  . Access to petroleum products in Ghana is satisfactory, but has to be improved as the population grows. As at 2010 there were a total of 1700 petroleum products retail outlets of which 37% are Service Stations (SS), 20% are Filling Stations (FS) and 43% are Reseller Outlets (RO)  [19]  . The total number of retail outlets represents an access ratio of 71 retail outlets per 1,000,000 people  [20]  . There are also vendors who sell mainly kerosene in rural communities, thereby increasing the accessibility of petroleum products in most part of the country. The National Petroleum Authority (NPA) is a statutory agency responsible for regulating, overseeing and monitoring the petroleum downstream industry in Ghana to ensure efficiency, growth and consumer satisfaction  [21]  . It is also charged with the responsibility of monitoring and regulating petroleum prices in accordance with the prescribed pricing formula. With strong economic growth and steady population growth over the past years, Ghanas total energy demand for petroleum products has grown substantially. Table 1 show the total demand for the various petroleum products in the country. It also included the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Ghana from 2000 to 2011. Figure 1 shows the trend of movement for the same period under study. TABLE 1: PETROLEUM PRODUCT CONSUMPTION AND GDP YEAR PETROLEUM PRODUCT CONSUMPTION GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) 2000 5,536.30 4,977.50 2001 5,895.20 5,176.60 2002 6,109.00 5,409.50 2003 6,048.20 5,690.80 2004 6,338.10 6,009.50 2005 6,505.10 6,364.10 2006 7,131.70 6,771.40 2007 7,407.60 7,208.80 2008 7,526.30 7,816.50 2009 8,160.40 8,180.60 2010 8,349.90 8,722.20 2011 8,877.10 9,890.90 SOURCE: National Energy Statistics 2000-2011 From the table above, the total energy demand for petroleum products 5,536.30 kilotonnes in 2000. This increased to about 8,877.10 by the end of 2011. It shows an average annual increase of 4.01% in energy demand. GDP which shows the real income of the country was US$4,977.50 billion as at 2000 and increased to US$ 9,890.90 billion by the close of 2011. This also shows an average annual growth rate of 4.5% within the same period understudied. This is a clear indication that, as the real income of the country increases, more petroleum products are demanded even though price of crude oil was on the increase as indicated in table 2 below. FIGURE 1: TREND IN GDP AND TOTAL PETROLEUM PRODUCT DEMAND From figure1 above, it is clear that, there is a strong correlation between petroleum product demand and the GDP of Ghana. The trend shows that as GDP grows, demand for petroleum products grows as well. Its further shows that as the real income of consumers increase, they tend to demand more of these products and hence movement of the two curves in the same direction. TABLE 2: PRICES OF CRUDE OIL AND SOME PETROLEUM PRODUCTS YEAR CRUDE OIL (Brent price US$) DIESEL PRICE (US$/l) PETROL PRICE (US$/l) KEROSENE PRICE (US$/l) LPG PRICE (US$/kg) 2000 28.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 2001 24.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 2002 25 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 2003 28.8 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 2004 38.3 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 2005 54.5 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 2006 65.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 2007 72.4 0.98 0.9 0.8 0.9 2008 97.3 1 1.1 1 0.9 2009 61.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 2010 79.5 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 2011 111.3 1.1 1 0.6 0.7 SOURCE: National Petroleum Authority From Table 2 also, it can be seen that crude oil price has been volatile, but generally on the rising side from 2000 up to 2011. The price of crude oil was US$ 28.5 in 2000 which decrease to about US$ 25 in 2002. It picked up again in 2003 and rose continuously to a high of US$ 111.3 by the end of 2011. Also prices of the various petroleum products responded accordingly to changes in the price of crude oil as indicated in table 2 above. In 2000, diesel was sold at US$ 0.4 per litre, petrol US$ 0.3 per litre, LPG US$ 0.5 per kg and kerosene was US$ 0.3 per litre. However, as crude price increases, the prices of diesel, petrol and kerosene also increased to US$ 1.1, US$1.0 and US$0.6 per litre respectively by the end of 2011. LPG also increased to US$ 0.7 per kg over the same period. FIGURE 2: TREND OF PRICES OF CRUDE OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS From Figure 2 above, it is also clear that, the prices of the various petroleum products respond positively and directly to changes in crude oil prices. This can be explained by the fact that, these products are derived from crude oil and hence, any change in its price or quantity will have corresponding effects on its products. 2.3 Theoretical framework The price of crude oil has been characterised by major swings especially in the 1970s and 2008 and has always impacted on the demand for petroleum products. This has increase the interest of many economists and other intellectuals and has since led to a number of studies that seek to investigate the relationships between real income, real prices and the consumption of petroleum products  [22]  . Dahl (1994) conducted a survey of petroleum demand in developing countries  [23]  . The result showed that the average price elasticity of demand of petroleum products for developing countries was -0.36, and income elasticity was 2.20. This suggested that, the demand for petroleum products is more responsive to changes in income than changes in real prices. Suleiman S.2009, used selection criteria from various models as way of cointegration approach to estimate the price and income elasticities of demand for total petroleum products such as gasoline and diesel in Indonesia. The results suggested that both total products and gasoline share estimates are more responsive to changes in income than changes in the real price of petroleum products. Based on this, he suggested that policy makers may need to use market-based pricing policies and other policies such as public enlightenment in addition to regulations like minimum energy efficiency standards to promote efficiency and conserv ation and curb the rising consumption of petroleum products in Indonesia.  [24]   Akin et al 2009 conducted empirical studies which sort to estimate the demand elasticities of petroleum products in Nigeria. The study employed a multivariate cointegration approach to estimate both the short-run and long-run price and income elasticities. The result showed that, energy consumption responds positively to changes in GDP and negatively to changes in energy prices. The study concluded that both price and income elastticities are inelastic even though the elasticities of demand vary according to product type.  [25]   Maria et al 2011 employed an econometric method developed by Deaton to calculate the price and income elasticities of demand for domestic energy in Mozambique. The calculations were done for all households at the national level, differentiating urban household from that of rural folks. The result showed that the responsiveness to changes in both price and income were higher for high-grade energy sources such as gasoline, diesel and LPG and lower for low-grade sources such as charcoal and fire-wood. They concluded by indicating that, the potential for energy transition in the domestic context is not directly visible from the price and income elasticities.  [26]   2.4 Methodology From the theoretical framework above, Dahl (1994), Suleiman S. (2001) and Akin et al all employed the cointegration approach in analysing the relationship between demand of petroleum products and changes in price. Maria et al (2011) applied an econometric method developed by Deaton in their study  [27]  . This study follows the approach adopted by Maria et al (2011). It is advantageous because it uses unit values as the prices of goods and hence provides the opportunity for the use of individual fuel prices. However, the usage of these unit values can lead to biased elasticity estimates  [28]  . The total demand for petroleum products (share of gasoline, Diesel Kerosene and LPG) can be specified as a function of real per capita GDP and real prices of Gasoline, Diesel, Kerosene and LPG. This can be modelled as follows: ED= f (GDP per capita, Price of Petrol, price of Diesel, price of Kerosene and price of LPG)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (1) Forming a linear regression equation from the function gives; Ed= a0 + b0GPD/p + c0pP + d0pD + e0pK + f0pLPG + u0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (2) Both the dependent variable and the independent variables are transformed to natural logarithms and hence double log estimation equation. This is written as follows lnEd= a0 + b0lnGPD/p + c0lnpP + d0lnpD + e0lnpK + f0lnpLPG + u0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (3) Edà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Demand for petroleum products GDP/pà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Gross Domestic Product per capita pPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..price of petrol pDà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..price of Diesel pKà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ price of Kerosene pLPGà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦price of Liquefied Petroleum Gas a0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..constant term u0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..stochastic term CHAPTER THREE: 3.0 ANALYSIS AND OUTCOMES Using the double log estimation equation as; lnEd= a0 + b0lnGDP/p + c0lnpP + d0lnpD + e0lnpK + f0lnpLPG + u0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Where, Edà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Demand for petroleum products GDP/pà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. .Gross Domestic Product per capita pPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. price of petrol pDà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. price of Diesel pKà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..price of Kerosene pLPGà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.price of Liquefied Petroleum Gas a0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦constant term u0à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦stochastic term TABLE 3: REGRESSION ANALYSIS lnGDP/p lnpP lnpD lnpK lnpLGP coefficients 1.017487 0.081134 -0.0214456 0.049237 -0.11419 p- values 0.022904 0.822455 0.925098 0.732547 0.276798 R Square 97.8% Confidence interval 95% Standard error 0.029936 Source: Arthurs construct 3.1 Discussion of outcomes 3.1.1 Gross Domestic Product per capita From the analysis summarised in table 3, GDP per capita as a variable shows a positive sign in its coefficient against demand for petroleum products. This implies that, as real per capita income of consumers increases, their demand for petroleum products increase as well. Its p-value of 0.022904 is also below the significant level of 0.05 (95% confidence) which is an indication that, the effect of changes in GDP per capita on the demand for petroleum products is statistically significant. 3.1.2 Petrol In terms of elasticities, a coefficient of 0.081134 for petrol shows that, the demand for it is inelastic. This implies that changes in the price of petrol leads to less than proportionate change in demand. The positive sign however does not follow the a priori expectation. But it shows that, over the period under study, there is a direct relationship between demands and price of petrol. Thus, any increase in the price petrol leads to an increase in its demand. The p- value however confirms that, this direct effect is not significant at 0.05 significance level since the value 0.822455 is greater than 0.05 (significance level). 3.1.3 Diesel From the table, the coefficient of diesel is quite revealing as it follows the a priori expectations in it demand. It has the expected negative sign which confirms that any increase in it price will result in decrease in it demand and hence decreasing the level of total demand for petroleum products in Ghana. But this is not significant at 95% confidence interval as the p-value of 0.925098 is greater than 0.05. 3.1.4 LGP Also from the table, the coefficient of LPG revealed the a priori expectations in it demand. It has the expected negative sign which confirms that any increase in it price will result in decrease in it demand. This is an indication that, decrease in the level of total demand for petroleum products in Ghana can be the result of increases in the price of LPG. But this is also not statistically significant at 95% confidence interval as the p-value of 0.276798 is greater than 0.05. Thus, inelastic demand for LPG. 3.1.5 Kerosene The variable price of kerosene shows a positive sign. This sign again does not follow the a priori expectation. This result implies that, there is a direct relationship between demands of kerosene and its price and hence, any increase in the price kerosene leads to an increase in its demand. But this is not the case or the expectation as the demand for kerosene decrease due to increases in it price. However, the p- value shows that, this direct effect is not significant at 0.05 significance level since the value of 0.732547 is greater than 0.05. The R2 of the analysis is measures the overall goodness of fit of the regression. The test result indicates that, the R2 =0.978 = 97.8%. It shows that the independent variables (GDP per capita, price of petrol, price of diesel, price of LPG and price of kerosene) explain the dependent (demand for petroleum products) variable to the tune of 97.8%. CHAPTER FOUR: 4.0 Conclusion This study analysed the effect of oil price change on the demand for petroleum products. This effect is analysed through the changes in the various prices of the major petroleum products (petrol, diesel, LPG and kerosene) consumed in Ghana from 2000 to 2011. The study employed a double log equation in its analysis. It included the Gross Domestic Product per capita as a measure of the real income of consumers. The results show that aggregate demand for petroleum products in Ghana follows with the a priori expectations of negative price elasticity and positive income elasticity. The results also showed that, the demand for petroleum products in Ghana has been on the increase from 2000 to 2011 and future still promise to show more increment if the economy maintain its strong growth pattern. The analysis of the results show that the real income of the consumer measured by GDP per capita has a positive sign which indicates that, as real per capita income of consumers increases, their demand for petroleum products increase as well. Its p-value of 0.022904 is also below the significant level of 0.05 (95% confidence) which shows that, the effect of changes in GDP per capita on the demand for petroleum products is statistically significant. The test result also shows that, for the period under consideration, the demand for the major petroleum products (petrol diesel LPG and kerosene) is inelastic even though their individual coefficients vary. Their prices continue to increase throughout the period under consideration as oil price increases. Total demand for these products increase as well. Notwithstanding the values of the study, it should be noted that energy demand might assume different implications in different economic sectors. Different sectors of the economy have different consumption behaviours and as such, have different optimal demand decisions under the same constraints and do not necessarily demand the same services from the various energy forms. Sectoral analyses of the demand for petroleum products will therefore, offer an in-depth analysis in future research works. 4.1 Recommendation In terms of policy implications, the study recommend that policy makers should design policy frameworks that will promote energy efficiency and conservation. These policies can be market-based pricing and taxation policies, policy that can ensure minimum energy efficiency standards and has the tendency of informing the public the consequences of the present trend in consumption and importation. Otherwise, the consumption of petroleum products is likely to continue to grow at a significant rate as long as per capita income continues to grow.